History
The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory has
been dated to approximately 11,000 years BCE. The oldest known
complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished
along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.
These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures
such as Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimu. In the
15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the
span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian
America. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using
techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and
fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity
and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market
or money.
Machu Picchu, the "Lost City of the Incas"In 1532, a group of
conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated Inca Emperor
Atahualpa and imposed Spanish rule. Ten years later, the Spanish
Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of
its South American colonies. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo
reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its
main economic activity and Indian forced labor as its primary
workforce. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown
and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe
and the Philippines. However, by the 18th century, declining
silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished
royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms,
a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the
Viceroyalty of Peru. The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's
rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.
Independence was proclaimed by José de San Martín in 1821.In the
early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars
of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite
hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish
Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the military
campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar. During the
early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between
military leaders caused political instability. National identity
was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin
American Confederation foundered and a union with Bolivia proved
ephemeral. Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed stability
under the presidency of Ramón Castilla due to increased state
revenues from guano exports. However, by the 1870s, these
resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted,
and political in-fighting was again on the rise.
Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific,
losing the provinces of Arica and Tarapacá in the treaties of
Ancón and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by
a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted
until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.
The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed
political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular
Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). The rivalry between this
organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined
Peruvian politics for the following three decades.
Angamos, a decisive battle during the War of the Pacific.In 1968,
the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a
coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook
radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain
widespread support. In 1975, Velasco was forcefully replaced as
president by General Francisco Morales Bermúdez, who paralyzed
reforms and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy. During the
1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing
inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political
violence. Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000),
the country started to recover; however, accusations of
authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced
his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.[26] Since
the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption
while sustaining economic growth; the current president is Alan
García.
Government
Peru is a
presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party
system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head
of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and
may not immediately be re-elected. The President designates the
Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of
Ministers. There is a unicameral Congress with 120 members elected
for a five-year term. Bills may be proposed by either the
executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being
passed by Congress and promulgated by the President. The judiciary
is nominally independent, though political intervention into
judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably
continues today.
Congress sits on the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.The Peruvian
government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all
citizens aged 18 to 70. General elections held in 2006 ended in a
second round victory for presidential candidate Alan García of the
Peruvian Aprista Party (52.6% of valid votes) over Ollanta Humala
of Union for Peru (47.4%). Congress is currently composed of Union
for Peru (45 seats), the Peruvian Aprista Party (35 seats),
National Unity (17 seats), Alliance for the Future (13 seats), the
Center Front (5 seats), Peru Possible (2 seats), and National
Restoration (2 seats).
Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts
with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the
20th century. There is still an ongoing dispute with Chile over
maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean. Peru is an active member of
several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean
Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international
organizations such as the Organization of American States and the
United Nations, where it is an elected member of the Security
Council for the 2006–2007 term. The Peruvian military is composed
of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to
safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity
of the country. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry
of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief.
Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary
military service.
Regions
Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each
region has an elected government composed of a president and a
council, which serves for a four-year term. These governments plan
regional development, execute public investment projects, promote
economic activities, and manage public property. The province of
Lima is administered by a city council.
|
Regions: |
|
Amazonas
Ancash
Apurímac
Arequipa
Ayacucho
Cajamarca
Callao
Cusco
Huancavelica
Huánuco
Ica
Junín |
La Libertad
Lambayeque
Lima
Loreto
Madre de Dios
Moquegua
Pasco
Piura
Puno
San Martín
Tacna
Tumbes
Ucayali |
Province:
Lima
Geography
Peru covers
1,285,220 km² (496,193 mi²), making it approximately two-thirds
the size of Mexico. It neighbors Ecuador and Colombia to the
north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the
south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.
The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean, dividing
the country into three geographic regions. The costa (coast), to
the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys
created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region
of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the
highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.
The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat
terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost
60% of the country's area is located within this region.
Most Peruvian rivers originate in the Andes and drain into one of
three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep
and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon
River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once
they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are
generally short and have a large flow. Peru's longest rivers are
the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga,
the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.
The peaks of the Andes are the source of many Peruvian rivers.Peru,
unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively
tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt
Current causes great climatic diversity within the country. The
costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high
humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches. In the
sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and
humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the
Andes. The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high
temperatures, except for its southermost part, which has cold
winters and seasonal rainfall. Because of its varied geography and
climate, Peru has a high biodiversity; 21,462 species of plants
and animals had been reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic.
The Peruvian government has established several protected areas
for their preservation.
Economy
Peru is a developing country with a 2005 Human Development
Index score of 0.773. Its 2006 per capita income was US$3,374;
51.6% of its total population is poor, including 19.2% that is
extremely poor. Historically, the country's economic performance
has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance
imports and external debt payments. Although exports have provided
substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian
distribution of income have proven elusive.
Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades.
The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced
radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation
of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning
system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These
measures failed to achieve their objectives of income
redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed
nations. Despite these adverse results, most reforms were not
reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of
Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions
on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of
companies. Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since
1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.
Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product,
followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%),
and taxes (9.7%). Recent economic growth has been fueled by
macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising
investment and consumption. Trade is expected to increase further
after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United
States, which awaits ratification by the US Congress. Peru's main
exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major
trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.
Demographics
With about 28
million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most populous country in
South America as of 2007. Its demographic growth declined from
2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to
reach approximately 42 million in 2050. As of 2005, 72.6% lived in
urban areas and 27.4% in rural areas. Major cities include Lima,
Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Chimbote, Cusco, and
Huancayo, all of which reported more than 200,000 inhabitants in
the 1993 census.
Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by the combination of
different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited
Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish Conquest
in the 16th century; infectious diseases, famine, war and
exploitation decreased their population from an estimated 9
million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620. Spaniards and
Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing
widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After
independence, there has been a gradual European immigration from
England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. Chinese arrived in the
1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a
major influence in Peruvian society. Other immigrant groups
include Arabs and Japanese.
Spanish, the first language of 80.3% of Peruvians age 5 and older
in 1993, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with
several indigenous languages, the most important of which is
Quechua, spoken by 16.5% of the population in 1993. Other native
and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 3% and 0.2% of
Peruvians, respectively. In the 1993 census, 89% of the population
over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 6.7% as
Evangelical, 2.6% as of other denominations, and 1.4% as
non-religious; 0.2% did not specify any affiliation. Literacy was
estimated at 88.9% in 2005; this rate is lower in rural areas
(76.1%) than in urban areas (94.8%). Primary and secondary
education are compulsory and free in public schools.
Culture
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish
traditions, though it has also been influenced by various African,
Asian, and European ethnic groups.
Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery,
textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas
maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements
including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated
colonial art, though modified by native traditions. During this
period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous
churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are
representative. Arts stagnated after independence until the
emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century. Since the
1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign
and local art currents.
Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of
pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the
16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and
religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and
Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified
in the works of Ricardo Palma. In the early 20th century, the
Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría, José
María Arguedas, and César Vallejo. During the second half of the
century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of
authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin
American Boom.
Ceviche is a citrus marinated seafood dish.Peruvian cuisine is a
blend of Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from
African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking. Common
dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, humitas, and pachamanca.
Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of
plants and animals are available for cooking. Peruvian cuisine has
recently received acclaim due to its diversity of ingredients and
techniques.
Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish and African roots. In
pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region
to region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.
Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such
as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of
crossbred instruments like the charango. African contributions to
Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion
instrument. Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, danza
de tijeras and huayno. |
